DATA COLLECTION: Self-Reports, Observation, & Biophysiologic Methods |
Developing a data collection plan |
Identify types of data needed for the study |
Select the types of measures to measure each variable |
Select and/or develop instruments |
Secure written permission to use each instrument |
Pilot test researcher-developed instrument & revise prn |
Develop data collection forms and procedures |
Implement data collection plan |
Identify types of data needed for the study |
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Testing hypothesis or answering research questions - measure each IV & DV |
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Describe characteristics of sample |
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Demographics - age, gender, ethnic origin, education background, marital status |
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Health-related variables - health habits, diet, exercise, illness, length of illness, tx., los |
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Control for extraneous variables |
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Measure as many as possible |
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Intrinsic and extrinsic factors (variables) that might influence DV |
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Analysis of covariance |
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Analyze potential biases |
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Selection bias r/t sample |
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Self-report of socially unpopular values, beliefs, or activities |
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Marlowe-Crown Social Desirability scale use |
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Understanding subgroup effects |
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May want to see if main effects also apply to subgroups |
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Main group - transplantation patients |
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Subgroups -bone marrow, heart, kidney, lung, liver transplantation subgroups |
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Analyze data per subgroup |
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Interpretation of results |
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Consider results that do not fit desired outcomes |
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Identify what data might explain undesirable outcomes |
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Manipulation check |
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Ask subjects if manipulation/treatment was effective |
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Helps to interpret negative results |
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Obtain administrative data |
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Records of subject ID=s |
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Data on number of times subjects recruited or approached, dates of data collection, length of time for data collection, location, time of day, and who collected data |
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Who, what, when, where, and how of data collection |
Select the types of measures to measure each variable |
Each variable must be measured - quantified |
Highly structured measurement takes time and testing to develop, yet gives data easier to analyze both descriptively and inferentially |
Researcher obtrusiveness - balance decreases obtrusiveness while protecting subjects' rights |
Objective measurement of phenomenon |
Better to use multiple methods to measure variables - self-reports, observations, and physiologic measures |
Need to consider ethics, cost, time, staff, and stress on pt./family &/or agency personnel |
Select and/or develop instruments |
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Identify existing instruments |
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Fit with conceptual definition of variable |
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Quality of instrument - validity & reliability |
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Resources - costs |
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Instrument use & scoring |
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Data collectors salary |
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Subject compensaton |
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Availability & familiarity |
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Researcher expertise |
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Equipment |
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Norms - comparability |
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Established norms for instrument - provide comparison group |
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Replication - use same instruments |
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Populations appropriateness |
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Reading level & writing ability |
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Cultural , ethnic origin |
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Gender biased |
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Translations for non-English speaking subjects |
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Administration |
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Expertise required of data collector for administration of instrument |
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Constraints of where, when, and how instrument administrated |
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Reputation of instrument from people who used it |
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Obtain permission to use instrument as written or to modify it |
Secure written permission to use each instrument |
Look for employer and write to author at place of employment |
Find most recent publication to identify current employer |
Request a copy of the instrument and information on scoring, procedures, validity, and reliability |
Develop instrument, pilot test researcher-developed instrument & revise it prn |
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Instrument based on theoretical framework of study |
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Pilot test on small scale & evaluate before administrationt large group |
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Determine amount of time to complete instrument |
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Areas problematic for subjects |
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Difficult to understand & reading level too high |
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Offensive terminology |
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Sequencing of questions |
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Training of data collectors |
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How well instrument discriminates among subjects - detects differences in subjects |
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Revise instrument based on pilot |
Develop data collection forms and procedures |
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Forms |
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Screening potential subjects |
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Consent & assent forms |
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Explanations to potential subjects for people referring subjects |
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Advertisements to recruit subjects |
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Records for tracking contacts with subjects |
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Mailing lists and logs for receipts |
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Procedures |
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Specific conditions for data collection |
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Specific procedures and sequencing for experiments |
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Standard information for subject's questions |
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Procedures for risks if they occur |
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List of all materials needed |
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Interview guidelines, instruments, observation directions |
Implement data collection plan |
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Select who will collect data |
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Researcher or neutral agent |
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Staff |
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Experience |
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Background similar to subject |
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Unremarkable appearance - dress, make-up, jewelry |
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Personality - pleasant, sociable, non-judgemental, non-threatening |
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Available to collect data for the entire study period |
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Training data collectors |
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Includes general principles of data collection & specifics for study |
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Data collection training manual |
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Review manual, forms, and procedures |
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Demonstrate data collection and return demonstration with videotape |
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Periodic observation of data collection to verify procedures are followed |
Self-reports |
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Unstructured, semi-structured, and structured self-report techniques |
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Interviews - verbal communication between research and subject; commonly used in exploratory and descriptive studies |
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Unstructured interview - 1 subject's world view; open-ended questions with probes and prompting; qualitative; audiotaped |
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Semi-structured interview - 1 subject; list of topics or questions for discussion with additional probes, aka topic guide; uses both open and close-ended questions; taped |
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Structured interview - 1 subject; specific questions asked in consistent order using the same words each time; no variation from questions and no explanation of unclear questions |
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Focus group interview - 5 to 15 subjects in a group; interviewer/moderator asks open-ended questions; efficient yet some individuals inhibited by others in the group |
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Life history - anthropologic; chronologic changes; sequence of events |
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Critical incident - subject describes an event (incident) from his/her viewpoint r/t research topic |
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Diary - subject's daily log describing own experiences r/t the research topic |
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Instruments - interview schedule with questions and space to record answers; tape recordings of face-to-face or telephone interviews |
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Interviewer training - pilot testing; familiar with content and situations encountered with interviewing; practice maintaining unbiased verbal and nonverbal communication |
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Researcher data gathering - good listener; good questioner; make subject relaxed and open; maintain focus on the topic; summarize and close on a positive note |
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Evaluate data - explore new topics and experiences; time consuming and demanding |
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Questionnaires |
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A printed self-report form designed to elicit information that can be obtained via a written response |
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A primary survey device to obtain information about the subjects' attributes, facts about events or situations, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions. |
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Can be mailed or distributed directly to a large number of subjects and picked up later |
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Degree of structure can vary from open-ended questions to closed-ended, fix-alternative questions |
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Development of questionnaire |
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Identify information desired and develop blueprint |
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Search literature for questionnaires |
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Develop questionnaire |
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Develop instructions and cover letter |
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Pilot test instrument & revise as indicated |
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Establish validity and reliability |
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Types of closed-ended questions |
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Dichotomous items - 2 opposing choices; yes/no or true/false |
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Multiple choice -- >2 choices from which subject selects 1 option |
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Rank-order - subject places options in rank or order of importance based on tool directions |
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Forced-choice - 2 polar alternative statements; similar to dichotomous, but in the form of sentences rather than single words |
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Rating - Likert scale; semantic differential scale |
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Visual analogue scales -100 mm line with polar adjectives; subject draws line across scale to represent subjective experience; pain, dyspnea, depression; researcher measures line at intersection to determine numerical value of pain, depression, etc. |
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Likert scale - strongly agree to strongly disagree |
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Semantic differential scale - happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 sad; good bad; energetic…exhausted |
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Psychological tests |
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Personality inventories – mmpi, edwards personal preference |
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Projective techniques – Rorschach inkblot test; thematic apperception test (tell a story based on a picture) |
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Potential sources of existing instruments/scales |
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Health & Psych instruments on line (HAPI) |
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Frank-Stromberg |
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Mental measurement yearbook |
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Literature review, dissertation or thesis abstracts |
Administering self-report instruments |
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Interviews |
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Put subject at ease |
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Punctual, friendly, courteous, respectful |
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Privacy – obtain written consent |
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Check tape recorder function before each interview; bring extra batteries and tapes |
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Remain neutral |
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Use interview guide for consistency |
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Advantages of interview |
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Better response rates |
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Wider range of subjects |
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can clarify questions |
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greater depth of questions |
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decreases missing information |
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order of questions controlled |
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adds supplementary observational data |
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Questionnaires |
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Group or individuals – easy with group |
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Personal contact with subjects or mailed |
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Want response rate of at least 60% to avoid response bias |
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Cover letter stating completion and return of questionnaire indicates consent of subject |
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Can drop off and pick up in person or mail |
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Mailing with follow-up plan – questionnaire, postcard, questionnaire, postcard |
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Advantages - Cheaper, anonymity, no interviewer bias |
Response biases of subjects |
Social desirability – chooses answer most socially acceptable |
Response set – items influence the subjects response to other items |
Extreme responses – selects response on either extreme end of poles |
Acquiescence response – yeah-sayers – always agrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to counterbalance this response |
Nay-sayers – always disagrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to counterbalance this response |
Construction of items |
Clearly stated |
Bias decreased |
Sensitive information – respect subject |
Worded so that subjects can respond to questions |
Short sentences – ask only 1 question at a time; positive statements |
Avoid leading questions; focus on research objectives and questions |
Use closed-ended questions with socially unacceptable topics |
Do not assume subjects are well informed about topic |
Impersonal wording of items without "I" |
Mutually exclusive item choices |
Observational methods |
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Gathering data through visual, auditory, tactile and other senses |
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Phenomenon |
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Characteristics of individuals |
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Verbal & nonverbal communication behavior |
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Activities |
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Skill attainment and performance |
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Environmental characteristics |
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Steps in observation |
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Decide what to observe |
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Determine how to conduct observation to ensure every variable observed in same manner |
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Orient and provide written instructions to observers |
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Validate accuracy and consistency of observation techniques |
Observational Methods |
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Unstructured observations |
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No planning – spontaneous |
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Observer freedom |
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Risk loss of objectivity |
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Requires excellent memory & interpersonal skills |
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Structured observations |
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Define what is to be observed |
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Define how observations will be made, recorded, and coded |
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Recording structured observations |
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Categories – detailed description of behavior or characteristics of category created in advance of observation; all possibilities are included in categories; exhausted all behavioral observations and recorded |
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Checklists – listing of categories; tally frequency and duration of behavior observed; all behaviors may or may not be categorized = non exhaustive |
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Rating scales - observer rates subjects behavior on scale; can combine checklists with ratings to reflect both |
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Relationship between observer and subjects |
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Participant observations – observer & subject interact to some degree duration observation |
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Overt – subject aware of observation |
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Covert – subject not aware of observation |
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Non-participant observations – observer and subject do not interact; can be overt or covert |
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Timing of observations |
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Time sampling – making an observation for a specified length of time at pre-determined intervals (eg observe for 5 minutes every 15 minutes or observe for 5 minutes 3 randomly selected times each hour) |
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Event sampling – making an observation whenever an event occurs |
Biophysiologic Methods |
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Purposes |
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Basic physiology with relevance for nursing care |
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Ways that nursing actions or medical interventions affect patient health outcomes |
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Evaluation of specific nursing procedures or interventions testing a hypothesis |
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Improving measurement and recording of biophysiologic data collected by RN |
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Correlation of physiologic function in patient with health problems |
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Major types |
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In vivo |
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Measurements performed directly with in or on living organisms themselves |
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May use complex instrumentation system with computers |
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May be simple – thermometer, pulse oximeter, stethoscope |
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In vitro |
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Measurements performed outside the organism’s body |
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Specimens collected and tested outside body |
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Blood chemistries, microbiologic, cytologic specimens |
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Considerations for physiologic measurements |
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Will measure yield good information? Does it fit research questions/hypothesis and variables of study? |
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What other methods of measurement could be used? Invasive & noninvasive |
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Equipment and supply costs; reliability of equipment and complexity of operation |
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Training of personnel |
Other Types of Measures |
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Existing Records |
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Databases collected by other researchers |
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Medical record audits |
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Q sort |
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Subject asked to sort statements into piles according to importance to subject or most positive to least positive |
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Forced –choice arrangement distributed into piles of bell-shaped curve |
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Time-consuming and difficult for some respondents |
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Delphi or nominal technique |
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Measures the judgments of a group of experts, assess priorities or make forecasts |
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Steps |
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Identify panel of experts to answer questions |
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Develop questionnaire – mostly closed-ended |
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Questionnaires completed and returned by experts and results analyzed |
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Statistical analysis and 2nd questionnaire sent to experts and returned |
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Steps 3 & 4 repeated until data reflects the consensus of the experts |
Practical Issues Regarding Data Collection |
Gaining access to a data collection site |
Conducting the data collection - setting the stage |
After data collection - getting back for feedback |