Notes
from Chapter 19: Society
and Technological Change
The
ideas and examples referenced below are notes compiled by Robert Keel from his reading of Volti, Rudi. 2014. Society and Technological Change. 7th edition. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. They are intended for classroom
use.
Organizations and Technological Change
- Organizations
dominant part of modern life.
- How do organizational
structures affect technology.
Technology
as a Cause of Organizational Structure
- An
organizations structure is strongly influenced by the central technology
the organization uses.
- Robert Blauner (page 367) studied relationship between technology used by industry and its
effect on the workers.
- Printing industry
that required great skill from the worker.
- Thus, worker had significant
autonomy.
- Textile
Mills machines did all the work.
- Workers merely cogs
in the system. Had little autonomy.
- Automotive industry--assembly line.
- Rigid scheduling--workers part of the "machine."
- Continuous production: chemical manufacturing and oil refining.
- Need worker involvement and initiative--no precise scheduling or regulation--worker freedom
- Joan
Woodward (page 369) how different technologies affect organizational
structures.
- Not concerned
with individual technologies, but with general manufacturing processes: structural variables; hierarchy, ratio of managers to other workers, flexibility.
- Unit and small batch
production e.g. shipbuilding.
- Large-batch and mass
production e.g. automobile manufacturing.
- Process production
e.g. production of chemical/petroleum products.
- Each
category distinguished by differences in technological complexity and the
extent to which uncertainty can be reduced through the application of routine
procedures.
- #1 and #3 required
far less rigid planning workers had more freedom.
- #2 required very specific rules, routinization workers had less freedom, hierarchical structure.
- A successful
organization is one that uses structures and procedures that are appropriate
to the productive technology employed.
- Charles
Perrow (page 369) considered the degree of variability of raw
materials processed by organization and the extent to which problem-solving
procedures can be routinized.
- Perrows definition
of technology it is a way of doing things.
- Perrow not concerned
with specific material stuff used in technology but rather, overall organizational
effectiveness.
- Organizational structure
is (should be) based on the particular qualities of the raw materials (iron ore or people) used
and the technologies used to process these materials.
- Issue of "exceptional cases."
- Analyzability--how much routinization is possible or desirable?
- Few exceptions and analyzable: mass-production, custodial institutions.
- Few exceptions and unanalyzable: craft, custom-made, most schools.
- Many exceptions and analyzable: engineering, heavy equipment manufacturing, medical practice.
- Many exceptions and unanalyzable: scientific research, aerospace industry, the arts.
- Issue of organizational effectiveness--use of right organization based on inputs and outputs.
Despite
the differences among the three theories, all concur that technology does influence
organizational structure. Also, in order to be successful, an organization needs
to match its organizational structures and processes to the technologies it
employs, as well as the cultural patterns within which they are immersed.
Technology as a Consequence
of Organizational Structure
- Organizations
can shape technological change through their ability to affect the supply
and demand for a particular technology.
An organization responsible
for a sizable portion of an industry can greatly influence the technological
development of the industry as a whole when it creates (or refrains from
creating) new products. (page 370) (The Browser Wars) (NY Times
coverage of Microsoft's Anti-Trust Case)
- On what basis do organizations
make technological choices?
- Little research done
on this issue.
- Technologies are often
seen as independent entities.
"A technology might
be selected not because of its innate superiority, but because it meets
the needs of the power holders within that organization." (Ibid.)
- Thus, the organization
itself creates the technology or the need for it.
- There may be several
technologies that could meet a particular need, but often one in particular
is selected because it meets the goals of those in power.
- The above questions will
take on greater importance as computers and automated systems are used more
in the production process.
Organizations and New Information Technology
- In the 19th century, organizations expanded and improved functioning through the use of the "new" technologies of communication (typewriters, telegraphs, telephones, carbon paper, etc.).
- In the late 20th and early 21st century, revolutionary changes in information technology have had dramatic effect on organizations.
- These innovations have speeded up operations, reduced costs, increased access to information, and intensified oversight. They have also altered internal and external communications.
- The impact on organizational structure is still being analyzed--other factors, beyond technology, exert influence.
- Decentralization (or more centralization): issues of power and control.
- Eroding of hierarchies via email and texting: variability of managerial response.
- New technologies do not necessarily supplant existing ones.
New Technology and Organizations: social networks, the internet, mobile computing. (Rainie, Lee and Barry Wellman. 2012. Networked: The New Social Operating System. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press)
- The globalization of work
- From "atom-work" to "bit-work": Shift from making things to selling, describing and analyzing (Richard Florida's "creative class": USA from 22% in 1960 to 43% in 2006)
- The internet and the mobile revolution have accelerated the shift to "networked work." Connections and collaboration.
- Distanciation. Sharing, communicating across vast distances: work form anywhere and at any time.
- Mobility: "road-warriors"
- The Networked Organization: reduction in hierarchies, formalization of informal processes, variety and sharing--breakdown of boundaries. "Switchboard" versus "Fish Bowl" operation, working on multiple projects an in multiple teams, blurring the home-work boundary.
Interorganizational
Relations and Technological Development
- No
business develops ALL of its technologies. It must rely on others for some
of its supplies
- Thus, technological
change is not solely the result of independent organizations, but rather the
relationship between many organizations
- In these relationships,
technological change can either grow or stagnate
- The Automobile
Industry:
- Industry historically
dependent on many sources for supplies
- Suppliers called
OEMs (original equipment manufacturers)
- Traditionally, relationship
between OEM and Auto was non-cooperative
- OEMs were uncertain
of how their products were being used
- This relationship
is one reason why American cars fared so poorly against Japanese
- Japan relies on much
more cooperation between auto and OEM
- American Auto beginning
to cooperate more with OEMs.
"...The
creation of effective working relationships between separate organizations is
an essential element of technological and economic vitality." (page 279)
Organizational
Size and Technological Innovation
- Technological
innovation requires commitment of personnel, money, and equipment
- As technology
grows more complex, it
is difficult to imagine that the "mom and pop" workshops of yesterday
could produce the technology of today.
- Along the above
reasoning, it would seem that only large firms would be the best source for
technological output
- It is true that
large scale factories will produce most technology BUT:
- Technological
innovations will not necessarily emerge from these sources
- The individual
will still be a source of innovation but will probably rely on large
firms to make his or her innovation a technical reality
Entrepreneurs
and Organizations
- Organizations
require the work of many people in order to function
- Organizations
rely on three bureaucratic
principles:
- Specialization
- Formalization (use
of rules and regulations)
- Hierarchical authority
- Although bureaucracies
are often viewed as inefficient there is no reason why they should be
- Bureaucracies
have limitations thrive best with routine, which can be an enemy to
innovation
- Inventors need
freedom, not regulation
"There
is a basic incompatibility of the new inventor and the large corporation.
Large companies have well-developed planning mechanisms which need to know
at the beginning of a new project how much it will cost, how long it will
take, and above all what its going to do. None of these answers may
be apparent to the inventor." (pages 381-382) Jack Kilby, co-inventor of the
integrated circuit
Questions? (page 383)
- If
you directed a research laboratory how would you structure work so as to allow
for creativity, but inhibit the wasting of time on unproductive tangents?
How would you distinguish between productive and creative ideas and potentially
unproductive ideas?
- Many
key industries are dominated by a handful of large firms. This tendency
has become common in light of consolidations and buy outs. How might this
trend impact technological innovation? What may its impact be on overall
economic development?
- In
1986 Steve Jobs was eased out as the president of Apple. Why? About
2 years ago he was rehired. Why?
- How might you design a research project that investigates the extent of managerial control over the selection of a firm's technologies? What sort of industries would be particularly suitable for such a project?
- Why have many organizational analysts fastened on information as an organization's key resource? To what extent do your experiences with organizations
reflect this idea? How does the ability to control the flow of information reflect
and reinforce power relations within an organization?
- Who comes to mind when you think of present-day entrepreneurs? To what
extent are they similar to the classic entrepreneurs of the past who propelled
industrial innovation? Does today's economic and political environment promote or retard entrepreneurial efforts?
URL:
http://www.umsl.edu/~keelr/280/soctechchange/soctech19.htm
Owner: Robert O. Keel: rok@umsl.edu
Last Updated:
Monday, March 7, 2016 11:34