Notes from
Chapter 5: Society
and Technological Change
The
ideas and examples referenced below are notes compiled by Robert Keel from his reading of Volti, Rudi. 2014. Society and Technological Change. 7th edition. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. They are intended for classroom
use.
THE DIFFUSION
OF TECHNOLOGY
How are Technologies
adopted by individuals and organizations that actually put them into use?
The International
Diffusion of Technology
- Myth— Technology is
largely result of one’s own people --> Technological Nativism.
- No technologically dynamic
nation is autonomous from technologies of other nations.
- 1500's— China led the world in technological innovation.
- 1500-1700's— Europe leads
world in technological advances.
- Yet many of these technologies
were the continuation of earlier advances in technology from China (blast furnace) and elsewhere.
- United States— has been heavily
dependent on technologies of other countries since its inception.
- Even advances that originated
in U.S. are often owed to immigrants:
- Bakelite-
(Leo
Baekeland- Belgium).
- Television Camera-
(Vladimir Zworykin-
Russia, see "The History of Television" on YouTube).
- Sharing of technology
isn’t as simple as merely transplanting technology from place to place.
- Technology is a system-
many components required to make it work, resources vary from country
to country.
- Technology needs support
of human beings who understand its workings.
- This may vary from country
to country.
"A
country (or an individual firm) that draws on technologies developed elsewhere
is spared the expense of ‘reinventing the wheel.’ But making effective use
of imported technologies— even if only direct copying is required— often requires
a stock of indigenous skill that cannot always be easily found." (pages 84-85)
- Technologies shared between
countries can be used for very different purposes:
- China— Gun
Powder— used medicinally for centuries, then later used for fireworks and rockets— passed on to Europe.
- Europe— within short
time using it for cannons and firearms--leading to transformation of warfare.
- When technology is transferred
from one country to another, modifications are most likely required for Technology
to work.... Thus it isn’t the exact same technology:
- Japan and Steel Production—
Japanese tried to apply Dutch steel production but:
- Had to make many
modifications.
- In particular, the special characteristics of Japanese coal
and iron ore required special modifications.
- Factory roofs built in Japan faced the wrong way and failed to let in light.
Appropriate Technology
The assumption that technologies of developed nations are essential to economic
and technological modernization of undeveloped countries is problematic.
- Not all countries have
equal resources (human and material).
- Even if technologies
can be transferred the results are not always desirable.
- Pakistan— introduction
of tractor— replaces worker— 40% unemployment rate.
- Workers migrate to cities—
dire poverty results— per acre crop yields hardly increased at all.
Equal use of
Technologies can have devastating impact:
- U.S. (pop. 317 million)--
one car/ 1.1 people.
- China (pop. 1.4 billion)--
one car/ 17.2 people.
Could
we afford to equalize resources without resource and environmental breakdown?
- Technology of one country
may not make good economic sense for another country.
- Poorer countries need
Technologies that create human jobs, not replace human jobs.
- Technologies are often
chosen by small power groups that represent their interests rather than the
interests of the country.
- Technology cannot be
developed strictly for economic motives: values and morality of culture play
key role.
Selection of Technology
reflects larger issues— social and political, as well as economic.
Business Firms and Technological
Diffusion
- Diffusion similar to
that which occurs from country to country.
- Factors that influence
diffusion:
- Relative advantages
over existing technology.
- Compatibility with
existing values of firm.
- Ease/difficulty of
understanding and applying new technology.
- Ease of experimentation
with new technology.
- Extent to which positive
results appear.
- People with knowledge
of technology are KEY to diffusion of technology.
- As with countries, technology
that works in one environment may fail in another.
Economics Motives and
Technological Transfer
- Expectation of cost and
benefits strongly influences speed at which technology is diffused.
- Mechanical
Reaper— pre reaper— grain harvested manually— LABOR INTENSIVE.
- Mechanical Reaper introduced
(1830's) but diffused very slowly until 1850's.
- 1850's--Crimean War—
increase of grain prices— motivation to produce grain.
- More grain— bigger farms—
Mechanical reaper makes sense to buy.
- Qualifications for Mechanical
Reaper— may not have been widely used because it required refinement in order
to be of practical use to farmer.
Economic motive is
important BUT it is still only a presumption of the likely success of a
Technology
The "Not Invented
Here" (NIH) Syndrome
- Risky nature of technological
innovation blocks the diffusion of new technologies.
- "The status quo
is a hell of a lot easier than making changes." Henry Ford
- Efforts to
Restrict the diffusion of technology.
"The exclusive possession of a particular technology can
confer great advantages on those that have it." (page 93)
- Coffee production in Yemen: 1500s.
- Venice— 16th cent. Glass
makers— assassins sent out to kill expatriate glass makers.
- England— 1719— illegal
for skilled artisans to emigrate.
- Present Day— strict rules against exporting technologies.
- Despite regulations,
diffusion of technology difficult to regulate.
The diffusion of technology (sigmoid or s curve): Everett Rodgers. 1962. Diffusion of Innovations
Patents
and the Diffusion of Technology
- Patents confer exclusive
use of an invention and are, obviously, highly desired.
- Patents can stifle technological
development.
- Patents can help diffuse
technological knowledge— patent makes public the knowledge.
- Ideally, patents make
invention known and available to public rather than just inventor.
- Patent isn’t an iron-clad
protection, merely a "license to sue."
- Patents often quickly
out-moded by technological advance.
- Advantages/disadvantages
of patent difficult weigh over the other.
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Questions (page 96):
- What sort of skills are required for the successful copying of a technology from elsewhere? Why do you think the Japanese have been so successful at making effective use of technologies that first appeared elsewhere? How might other countries duplicate their success?
- Most economically advanced countries have technical assistance programs that are used to upgrade the technological levels or poorer countries. Under what circumstances might these programs be harmful? How might these programs be shaped to better meet the needs of poorer countries?
- If you were the leader of a poor nation, what general policies would you formulate in regard to the importation of technology? Where might you expect to find opposition?
- Suppose you were the CEO of a firm that has the choice between two new technologies: one that promises a modest profit with very little risk, and another that may yield a very high profit but at considerable risk. What would your choice be? Who in your company might support the first technology and who might support the second?
- Does the patent system encourage or discourage technological innovation? What would happen if it were abolished? Can you think of an alternative that would better serve the needs of both inventors and the general public?
Chapter 18
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