The ideas and examples referenced below are notes compiled by Robert Keel from his reading of Volti, Rudi. 2014. Society and Technological Change. 7th edition. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. They are intended for classroom use.

THE SOURCES OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

Why do technologies emerge when they do? Why not sooner or later?

The Great Breakthrough

History of technology linked to single revolutionary inventions:

• Penicillin
• Light Bulb
• Air Plane

• Alexander Fleming
• Thomas Edison
• The Wright Brothers

"...few great successes stem from one bold-stroke strategic thrust. More often, they result from one half-good idea that is improved upon incrementally. These improvements are invariably the result of a lot of little people paying attention to the product, the customer, and the marketplace." (page 44)

Research and Development:

Research--> often viewed as the key to technological advances

• Lays the groundwork for development
• Development-->prepares new technology for actual production
• Research would mean nothing w/out the ability to develop product
  1. Penicillin- (1928- A. Fleming) discovered mold.
  2. Large-scale production of Penicillin required development of new technology.
  3. New, larger vats to grow culture.
  4. Development of Anti-foaming products.
  5. Prior to development of new procedure--> Penicillin $20/dose -->
  6. After $.55/dose

"Technological advances often occur because of the availability of complementary technological developments that allow for the resolution of fundamental problems." (page 45)

Technology takes time to come to full fruition.

The "computer":

• Babbage's analytical engine required complex gears and other mechanical components.
• "Success" took nearly 100 years and the development of solid-state electronics, cathode ray tube, and storage devices.
• Computer time line and another. Now Neural Networks and Quantum Computing.
  
  
• 
  Michael Wesch: The Machine is Us/ing Us

Internal combustion engine:

• Timing of spark that ignited air-fuel mixture not set for optimal efficiency.
• This was continually improved upon, resulting in greater performance.
• This development occurred over time.

• Developments can also be shared between fields
• Turbo-jet relied heavily on designs, components, and processes already developed for steam turbines
• Sometimes complimentary process that help advance technology are, of themselves, not technological at all--> attitudes and opinions often need to be changed for technology to prosper
  1. Farmers in New Mexico (1940's)--> reluctant to use hybrid corn crop even though hybrid gave better yield.
  2. The taste and texture of tortillas made from hybrid corn was disliked.
  3. Reluctance to change culinary patterns stopped growth of this new technology.

• A focus on "individuals as reason for technological change" is insufficient -->
• Surely human ability has been evenly distributed throughout history.
• Yet technological advance more apparent in some eras than others
• What kind of social system is required if inventive ability is to flourish?
• Available supply of resources does not ensure development of technology.
• In order for technology to exist there must be a demand for it.
  1. Improving the horseshoe was important when the horse was main mode of transportation.
  2. Photography developed as upper-class (middle?) grew that desired such technology, or rather, the by-product of such technology— a photo.
• Belated demand for technology also a factor.
  1. Xerox (Chester Carlson)- introduced in 1930's and was shunned.

1. Refinement/improvement of existing way of doing things.
2. Truly revolutionary breakthrough.

• Technological advances usually reflect society’s general configuration of wealth and power.
• Europe- Middle Ages- Church is the power— great technological advance-- Gothic Cathedral.
• Europe-15th century- rise of capitalism and market system— development of ships
  1. Market economy stimulates inventive efforts--
  2. Market economy promises financial rewards
  3. Market economy has many competitors
  4. Market economy can produce auxiliary items necessary for technological advance

1. Less likely to have significant technological development.
2. Basic tension between system of economic management and the requirements for technological innovation.
3. Planned economies rely on prediction and routine— Technology is unpredictable.
4. Planned economies are often rigid— don’t allow for innovation, which is key for technology

• Technological innovation cannot be traced exclusively to economic motives.
• Sometimes cost is a concern in developing technology, yet sometimes it is not:

  1. Defense industry--> $400 million or more/fighter plane.
  2. Space Programs--> $$$$$$$$$$$ (exploration: $3.6 billion, operations: $3.7 billion, technology: $576 million)
  3. Medical intervention for life threatening illnesses--> How much are you willing to pay?

As with most things in the social world, the need for technology is very much:

SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED

Questions (pages 57-58):

1. How well does the social construction approach explain technological innovation? Which technologies fit, which do not?
2. In the past, inventors (Edison, Wright brothers, etc) were often treated as celebrities. Can you name any contemporary inventors? Why may they be less prominent today?
3. If a person needs a medical device that they cannot afford, what is the source of effective demand? Who pays and why?
4. If you wanted to develop an innovative technology, how would you go about determining whether or not the market was receptive?
5. If you were a leader of a country, what would you do to accelerate technological innovation?

Chapter 4